Industrial Impacts

Overview of Solutions Landscape

Industrial activity in the ocean—energy production, transportation, mining, farming, and other activities—is growing rapidly, with major ecological and social consequences. The ocean represents one of the planet’s largest and last frontiers for expansion to support economic growth – as a source of food, material (such as oil and gas, minerals, water), and space (for shipping, renewable energy, waste disposal, military activities, and tourism).¹ This exploitation is happening at an unprecedented pace, in all parts of the ocean, and in a broad range of industries and sectors – often referred to as the “blue acceleration.” While there are opportunities to find “win-win” solutions that enable sustainable exploitation and stewardship of ocean resources, when unmanaged, industrial impacts can exacerbate all of the major ocean threats – including pollution, climate change, habitat and biodiversity loss, and unsustainable fishing and farming.

Offshore oil and gas, shipping, and ocean aquaculture are three of the fastest-growing ocean industries. Offshore oil production is responsible for nearly 30 percent of global crude oil output and about 10 percent of annual GHG emissions, making it the most significant ocean-based industry in terms of both economic activity and contributions to climate change.^2,3 Global maritime traffic continues to grow, 80 percent of which is in the Northern Hemisphere, with nine of the 10 busiest ports all in Asia.⁴ Shipping is responsible for 2.89 percent of global GHG emissions, which are expected to increase 50 to 250 percent from 2012 levels by 2050.⁵ Shipping impacts can also lead to pollution, invasive species, and marine mammal mortality through dumped and spilled oil and waste, ballast water discharges, ship strikes, noise pollution, and dredging for shipping channels. The impacts of aquaculture production vary markedly by species, geography, production system, and intensity. When poorly managed, it can result in invasive species, disease, unnatural competition with wild species, conversion of coastal habitat (such as mangroves), impacts on the seafloor, chemical and antibiotic use, and additional pressure on wild fisheries (for fishmeal and fish oil).

Figuring out what “sustainable exploitation” looks like in these ocean-based industries, while eliminating their worst impacts, is key to ensuring ocean health while also supporting economic growth. Although these industries vary significantly in how they operate and what kinds of impacts and risks are associated with them, policy is often required to determine what impacts are acceptable; new technologies are often necessary to reduce risks (or secure greater benefits); and novel monitoring and surveillance techniques (such as satellite monitoring) are critical to keep track of bad practices, as much of what happens occurs far from shore and out of the public eye.

Efforts seeking to constrain offshore oil and gas production are a major focus of marine conservation organizations. Constraining oil production in general is widely considered necessary to minimize the worst impacts of climate change.⁶ Offshore production comes with added risks of well blowouts (such as the Deepwater Horizon catastrophe in the Gulf of Mexico) as well as oil spills from tankers. Policy advocacy to promote moratoria on further offshore oil development has gained traction in the United States as one of the world’s top five leading offshore oil producers.⁷

Interventions to reduce impacts from shipping focus on reducing air and water pollution through global policies, operational practices, surveillance to keep track of these impacts, and new technology development to facilitate the transition to zero-emission vessels. Although shipping is a low-GHG form of transport, it still accounts for a significant source of global emissions (roughly three percent of global anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. ⁸ The sector’s emissions are expected to double in 2050 due to increased demand.⁹ Transitioning the global shipping industry towards zero-emission vessels (e.g., battery powered electric ships) and energy sources for refueling and recharging, as well as changing operational practices (such as speed reduction requirements) can reduce GHG emissions and minimize wildlife interactions such as whale strikes. Committing to standards like the International Maritime Organization’s emissions and fuel efficiency targets are the baseline level of ambition required to meet required GHG reductions from the sector. Significant investments in technology development and port-side electric infrastructure will be required to launch and power zero-emission vessels within a timeframe that helps to address the climate crisis. The London Protocol on the dumping of wastes into the marine environment is a critical global treaty, although only 53 countries are parties to the protocol.

Minimizing the impacts of ocean aquaculture depends to a large extent on siting, species choice, and technology improvements. Aquaculture’s environmental impacts vary significantly by species (with seaweed, bivalves, and crustaceans typically lower impact, and finfish production typically higher impact), production system, and geography. As such, local permitting and zoning can play a critical role in siting of aquaculture production in ways that minimize their ocean impacts. Certifications such as the Aquaculture Stewardship Council, Global Aquaculture Alliance, and Best Aquaculture Practices can help shape consumer demand towards consumption of more responsibly and sustainably-produced farmed seafood. Investments in lower-impact technologies (e.g., recirculation tanks, offshore cages, feeding systems), feed alternatives, and improved breeding techniques can all help the industry reduce its environmental footprint and sustainably feed a growing global population.

Offshore wind is likely to play a significant role in the transition to a clean energy economy, assuming its environmental impacts can be managed. Offshore wind production is growing rapidly at an estimated 18.6 percent annually through 2024, with the industry expected to generate 234 GW of electricity globally by 2030.¹⁰ The marine environment is uniquely suited to wind energy production, as offshore winds are more reliable and more consistent than winds onshore, and production could be co-located with cities that are major sources of demand. Like any ocean-based industry, it is not without its environmental concerns, which can include increased noise levels, risk of collisions with birds, and potential changes to benthic and pelagic habitats. It also has other barriers to growth, including complicated permitting processes, transmission challenges, and interest group opposition by commercial fisherman and coastal homeowners. In contrast to potential adverse impacts, offshore wind has possible environmental benefits for the marine environment: for instance, wind turbine foundations can act as artificial reefs to attract marine life and the buffer zone surrounding a turbine may serve as a de-facto marine reserve.

A range of emerging extractive and polluting industries are also growing, including deep sea mining, desalinization, marine renewable energy, sand mining, submarine cables, and dredging and dumping. With some exceptions, these industries have not been a historic area of focus for the marine conservation community. As the “blue acceleration” continues, more industrial activity is likely to merit further consideration by ocean advocates. The environmental impacts of many of these industries are not well-studied, but impacts could be significant – such as sand mining for concrete which can hollow out waterways and affect sediment flows into estuaries and deltas, and the disposal of brine waste from desalinization to create drinking water in arid parts of the world. Erosion control policies, compensatory mitigation requirements for unavoidable impacts, and international and national standards for what are acceptable impacts for each of these industries are all important solutions to explore.

Potential Solution Areas That Are Underexplored or Understudied

The following areas are considered underexplored or understudied in mitigating the impacts of industrial activities on and in the ocean:

• How can resource managers conduct scenario planning in a more participatory way? Engaging diverse stakeholders in scenario planning processes across a range of sectors – industry, governments, community, NGOs – could help envision a shared vision for a thriving ocean future.
• What does dynamic and adaptive ocean governance look like? The frameworks that govern ocean resources (such as UNCLOS) have struggled to balance sustainable use and conservation. What governance options are available to provide incentives or limits for sustainable use, in the context of slow and contentious international policy processes?

Knowledge Gaps and Outstanding Questions for the Field

The following areas represent knowledge gaps and/or outstanding questions for the community:

• How do we address competing desires and uses for marine space, such as economic activity, shipping and navigation, coastal recreation, military activity, biodiversity and habitat, and cultural values? Traditional marine spatial planning approaches must now consider an expanding set of user interests for marine space.

Emerging Areas of Interest and Research

The following areas represent emerging areas of interest and research for the marine community:

• What does the trajectory of human expansion into the ocean look like and how should impacts be mitigated? The conservation community needs to answer a range of important questions about the expansion of industrial interests into the ocean, including: a) What sectors and countries are driving this acceleration?; b) What are the environmental impacts?; and c) Who will benefit from these claims to ocean resources, and who will lose?

Typology